Evolutionary altruism has been a serious problem for evolutionary theory from its earliest times at mid-nineteen century. Group selection theory was its solution until 1960s.But at that time it was criticized so that it was no longer the solution to that problem. Since then theories put forward to solve the problem by individual and/or gene selection theories. Kin selection, reciprocal altruism, evolutionary game theory, the selfish gene, and indirect reciprocity are the main theories of this sort. Altruism according to these theories is apparent not real. Multi-level selection theory is introduced since 1970s that defends "new" group selection theory. In addition cultural group selection theory has come into the field. Altruism according to these theories is real. I agree with the second type of theories that real altruism has been evolved. But perhaps more in agreement with the first type I see it in the "shadow" of evolutionary egoism.

Background: Urban heat island (UHI) is being intensified with the progress of urbanization. Meanwhile, res-piratory diseases caused by high temperature become common. This study explores the influences of UHI on respiratory diseases (J00-J99) and the evolutionary characteristics of the spatial pattern of such influences. Methods: The pattern– process– function and the influencing mechanism of UHI on respiratory diseases were evaluated through landscape pattern indexes from 1992 to 2018 in Tianjin, China. The basis was on data from Landsat TM/OLI/TIRS remote-sensing images, meteorological stations, and mortality of respiratory diseases. Results: The fluctuating influence of UHI on the respiratory diseases in Tianjin has increased from 1992 to 2018, showing a significant phase-based characteristic. During 2011-2018, the influence has soared greatly, and mortality risk has increased by 101%, and the influenced area has reached 349 km² . Furthermore, the regional space clustered, and the influenced patches are in irregular shape, and the highly influenced area is enlarged. Moreover, the indexes of the landscape level of the influenced areas all decrease. The patches at all levels are fragmented and distributed discontinuously. Spatially, the influenced areas gradually extend from the urban center to the suburbs. Conclusion: UHI causes a higher mortality of respiratory diseases because it increases daily average air tem-perature in summer. With respect to landscape pattern, the influenced areas at low level is highly interconnect-ed and relatively concentrated, whereas the influenced area at high level is distributed in clusters. In general, the influenced area is fragmented and discontinuously distributed in urban center.

Bayesian evolutionary analysis provide a statistically sound and flexible framework for estimation of evolutionary parameters. In this method, posterior estimates of evolutionary rate (μ) are derived by combining evolutionary information in the data with researcher’s prior knowledge about the true value of μ. Nucleotide sequence samples of fast evolving pathogens that are taken at different points in time carry evolutionary information that allow for estimation of evolutionary rates and divergence dates. If the amount of genetic change in the data is proportional to the time elapsed since divergence from the common ancestor, then one can directly estimate the μ from the data. Otherwise, external sources should be used to select the μ value, and use it as a fixed prior in Bayesian evolutionary analysis. This note provides a brief overview on how to assess the adequacy of the evolutionary information in the data and provides some recommendations for obtaining proper evolutionary rate priors from external sources. The recommendations generally highlight the need for the candidate μ prior to be a good representative of the evolutionary rate in the data at hand. This will be achieved by ensuring that the samples that are the source of the candidate μ value have been under relatively similar evolutionary forces as the data at hand. As the evolutionary forces acting on a particular set of samples varies across different study settings and species type, selection of prior for μ should be founded on a thorough understanding of the species under study at biological and social levels.

In the theological discussions of Christianity, which is not alien to the theological issues of Islam, there are three broad views on the soul’ s origin: traducianism, creationism and preexistence view. But today, in philosophy of religion and literature of mind, William Hasker posits an alternative view of origins called emergent substance dualism. Tertullian believed in traducianism that means “ souls following the creation of the first pair (i. e. Adam and Eve) successively generate additional souls (i. e. diachronically not synchronically) where souls are parturient or fissile” . “ According to traducianism, God creates at least one soul directly and immediately” . Soul is produced by physical parents and with physical body. Some verses of the holy book support this but it is not clear how immaterial soul can be generated through a completely physical process...

Innovations, commercialized by new or old established firms, located at the core of industrial renewal process. The innovation concept has suffered transformations, along with the evolution of the models that try to explain and understand the innovation process. The innovative process corresponds to all activities that generate technological changes and the dynamic interaction between them, not necessarily being novelties. Linier model, Chain-Linked Model and National Innovation Systems (NIS) Approach, are three models that have developed for innovation process. Innovation process can be viewed as evolutionary process. One can recognize some mechanism for innovation evolution. These are grouped into two classes; those that increase configurations variation and those that decrease it. Emergence of knowledge, knowledge flow and recombination are the mechanism to increase variation of configuration. Internal and external selections are the mechanism to selecting. Innovation operators are evolutionary operators that create new combinations of configuration and increase variation. This paper develops an evolutionary cycle in innovation process and extends evolutionary mechanisms of innovation.